Gender Norms & Racial Bias in the Study of the Modern History Essay Example for Free

Gender Norms Racial Bias in the Study of the Modern History Essay History is the study of the past, specifically how it relates to humans. It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians. Events occurring prior to written record are considered prehistory. History can also refer to the academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past events, and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them. Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing perspective on the problems of the present. Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends, because they do not support the disinterested investigation required of the discipline of history. Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian is considered within the Western tradition to be the father of history, and, along with his contemporary Thucydides, helped form the foundations for the modern study of human history. Their work continues to be read today and the divide between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In the Eastern tradition, a state chronicle the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd century BC texts survived. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, and the a cademic study of history is a major discipline in University studies. Etymology Ancient Greek á ¼ ±ÃÆ'Ï„Î ¿Ã ÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ± means inquiry,knowledge from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his . The ancestor word is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions . The word entered the English language in 1390 with the meaning of relation of incidents, story. In Middle English,  the meaning was story in general. The restriction to the meaning record of past events arose in the late 15th century. It was still in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about Natural History. For him, historia was the knowledge of objects determined by space and time, that sort of knowledge provided by memory . In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both history and story. The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669. Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is attested from 1531. In all European languages, the substantive history is still used to mean both what happened with men, and the scholarly study of the happened, the latter sense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, History, or the word historiography. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record. The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historians archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents . The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as pa rt of the social sciences. It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification. In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history. Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is  said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three. But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before. Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in dealing with buried sites and objects, which, once unearthed, contribute to the study of history. But archaeology rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to complement its discoveries. However, archaeology is constituted by a range of methodologies and approaches which are independent from history; that is to say, archaeology does not fill the gaps within textual sources. Indeed, historical archaeology is a specific branch of archaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA; has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth apparent via the study of the total historical environment, despite the ideology of liberty inherent in written documents at this time. There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in The International Womens Movement in an Age of Transition, 1830–1975. It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward spec ialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity. History and prehistory The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By prehistory, historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid historys implicit exclusion of certain  civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world. In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote: This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as Australian Aboriginals and New Zealand MÄ ori in the past, and the oral records maintained a nd transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with European civilization. Historiography Historiography has a number of related meanings. Firstly, it can refer to how history has been produced: the story of the development of methodology and practices. Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical writing . Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the Philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations, worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. Professional historians also debate the question of whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives. Philosophy of history Philosophy of history is a branch of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history. Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible teleological end to its development—that is, it asks if there is a design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in the processes of human history. Philosophy of history should not be confused with historiography, which is the study of history as an academic discipline, and thus concerns its methods and practices, and its development as a discipline over time. Nor should philosophy of history be confused with the history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas through time. Historical methods Cultural history Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history  to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of art in society as well is the study of images and human visual production. Diplomatic history Diplomatic history, sometimes referred to as Rankin History in honor of Leopold von Ranke, focuses on politics, politicians and other high rulers and views them as being the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. This is the most common form of history and is often the classical and popular belief of what history should be. Economic history Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments. Environmental history Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it. World history World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds. It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others. The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990. The H-World discussion list serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews. Peoples history A peoples history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective of common people. A peoples history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other type of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. This history also usually focuses on events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave of smaller events cause certain developments to occur. Histomomity Histornomity is a historical study of human progress or individual personal characteristics, by using statistics to analyze references to eminent persons, their statements, behavior and discoveries in relatively neutral texts. Gender history Gender history is a sub-field of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of gender. It is in many ways, an outgrowth of womens history. Despite its relatively short life, Gender History has had a rather significant effect on the general study of history. Since the 1960s, when the initially small field first achieved a measure of acceptance, it has gone through a number of different phases, each with its own challenges and outcomes. Although some of the changes to the study of history have been quite obvious, such as increased numbers of books on famous women or simply the admission of greater numbers of women into the historical profession, other influences are more subtle. Public history Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all  levels of government. Historians Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and analysts, though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included. The judgments of history Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the judgments of history. The goals of historical judgments or interpretations are separate to those of legal judgments, which need to be formulated quickly after the events and be final. A related issue to that of the judgments of history is that of collective memory. Pseudo-history Pseudo-history is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. Closely, related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudo-history. Teaching history From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980 attention increasingly moved toward teaching world history or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy. At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives. The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pedagogies and Inveiglement and other journals for teachers. Also  influential was the Institute national de recherchà © et de documentation pedagogue. Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about historians’ approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis Franà §ois, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and promote active methods which would give pupils the immense happiness of discovery. Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity. In most countries history textbook are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the official line about national enemies. In many countries history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire World War II is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained. It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography. Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success. In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by super-patriotism but rather by an almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone and reflects principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace. The result is that German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and European.

John Locke :: Empiricists, Empiricism

Intrigued by the notions of inalienable rights, John Locke became known as a 17th century English philosopher of the enlightenment. Born on August 29,1632, Locke possessed a good deal of influence because of his connection with England and the United States. John Locke had a plethora of Philosophical theories. I will further elaborate on the idea of Locke’s thoughts on inalienable rights.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One might first begin with addressing the question of what are Inalienable rights? To this I answer that they are those natural rights belonging to individuals by virtue of their humanity. Locke’s focus is primarily based upon the ideas of freedom and equality as a whole. He believes that citizens should naturally possess the right to life liberty and happiness, which is portrayed in the constitution of the United States. These inalienable rights or natural rights have derived from the law of nature. The law of nature is a state that relies purely on the law of God, which is also known as moral law. This law gave people the natural right to life, liberty, and happiness without question. In addition, Locke believed that people also possess the basic right of self-defense if under attack. However, Locke’s key aspect of his theories was the basic idea of equality. He said that nobody has the right to rule and that consent is critical because it’s based on the premises that all people are equal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John Locke is very much known as a political philosopher in today’s modern society. Because much of Locke’s philosophy centered on subjects such as natural rights and knowledge, he has in-turn shaped American politics in such a way that it has never been the same. Locke has challenged many theories have to do with inalienable rights as a part of natural law; therefore he had much to do with the involvement in the evolution of the American Government.

Bread Givers By Anzia Yezierka

The correct date of the birth of Anzia Yezierka is not know but it was in between 1880 or 1885 in a village in Poland. Her father being a Talmudic scholar could not earn therefore the family was living on the money her mother was earning by selling peddling goods and also from the neighbors contribution that were thrilled they way the entire family was being run without her father earning anything. THE NOVEL BREAD GIVERS Her story Bread Givers is based upon the life of a 10 year old American Jewish female who is doing stuff beyond her age.This story is about Sara Smolinksky. She lives with her father Reb Smolinsky, her mother Shenah Smolinsky and her three sister Mashah, Bessie and Fania in a East side apartment in New York. The story opens with the mentioning of the family who are very poor with five women who are besieged for cash just to survive and the man of the house Reb Smolinsky is only concerned with studying the sacred text of Jews. The family is about to starve. Saraâ€⠄¢s elder sisters Fania, Bessie and Mashah are jobless and Mashah spends what money she has on herself just to make her beautiful.The man of the house Reb Smolinsky sits at home all day long, just reading the holy books of Jews and confiscating whatever money his daughters bring home, and this is his duty as a father. When Sara’s mother Shenah Smolinsky shows hopelessness over the entire condition, the youngest daughter Sara goes to the outside world to make some money for the family by selling herring. Than later her elders sisters also find some jobs and Shenah (their mother) gives the second room on rent which somewhat enhances the financial position of the family.Well behaved and quite Bessie soon starts to love a young man name Berel Berenstein. She asks him to come home for dinner. The entire family is happy for Bessie other than her very own father, who thinks that he won’t be able to survive as Bessie was bringing the most money. Berel wants to get married to B essie with nothing in return but her father says that Berel should give money for the whole wedding and also set him a business. This offer is refused by Berel and he goes out of the house. Later he asks Bessie to leave her father and marry him; this offer is rejected by Bessie.Berel gets engaged to another girl, which crushes Bessie’s heart. The next daughter to find love is Mashah. Her love is also believed to be inappropriate by her father. Her love is from a rich family who is a piano player by the name of Jacob Novak. Reb Smolinsky totally disapproved and somehow blackmails Jacob so that he may stay away from Mashah for numerous days thus breaking her heart. Later Jacob asks for pardon which Mashah does not give him and asks her father to kick him out of the house. Fania’s lover is also disapproved by her father who happens to be a poet who is poor.His name is Morris Lipkin. Morris is shown the door by Fania’s father again. Reb Smolinsky than finds his own suitors for his three daughter which makes them all sad. The youngest daughter Sara watches all of this and is very angry at her father because what he has done to her elder sisters, but because of she being a girl and her tender age leaves her helpless. Reb Smolinsky spends almost his entire life ready the Torah and other Holy Jewish books. He is living in his own world where there is only religion, a place which is highly unsuited with what the rest of his family are living.His entire day and night are mainly concerned on the assurance of heaven and contributing generous assistance to other people, which makes him not to realize that on Earth, a man needs to assure that his family are being fed before the strangers. When on a holy work, men seem to be kind and good and also they value the significance of the study, he tries to explain this knowledge to the outside world where sometime people do not even care what your reason is for not giving them anything and try to deceive you t hrough any means. The thing which is most damaging not only to him but also the outside world is he being extremely knowledgeable.He takes this the wrong way and thinks that the outside world is as knowledgeable as he is and at times makes some rather silly decision without consulting his wife who is more sensible. After his decisions thought to be badly made, he does not accept it and makes the decision to be more shameful rather than admitting that he was wrong about it. In Spite of the numerous warnings by Mrs. Smolinsky, her husband Reb takes all the money which he had gotten from Bessie’s marriage and invests into a grocery store which the last owner had fake stock kept all over. He is double crossed. Mrs.Smolinsky and Sara must again act quickly to survive and each day they get more anger from Reb. A day comes when Sara loses it and runs away and decides that she wants to become a teacher. She decides to stay with her sister Mashah or Bessie but because of a bad marriag e and being too poor she does not. She gets her own private room which is dirty and small. She finds a job in a laundry shop to pay for the room and her nights are used up in either taking classes or studying. The main motivating force in the life of Sara is to find her own description of light that she sees glowing from her father.When she was a child she desired for anything that would motivate her, like the poetry of Morris Lipkin did sometimes. She dreamt of becoming a teacher when she was just a teen, so that all of the eyes are focused on her like they are on her father when he is preaching. She manages to find books which motivate her day after day. She later gives up Max Goldstein as because of him she would have left her education, she calms herself by saying that this sacrifice by her is like the rejection of the world’s success by her father to better study the Torah.When she gets to know that what is meant by inner light, the first thing that comes in her mind tha t this she would like to share with her father, thinking that he is the one who will understand what she is thinking. She decides that she wants to gain knowledge more than anything else in the world and she gives her entire time and force to obtain that knowledge like her father does when he is studying his books. In her mission to find internal light, Sara is perfects her logic of fury at the unfairness by many people.Even though she has no sort of man backing, still she is tough to be angry at a restaurant cook who gives her a less amount of meat only due to the fact that she is a woman. She is also angry at Jacob and Berel for breaking her sister’s heart and her hate for her father starts when she sees that he is denying them a life of their own. This fighting of injustice is what makes Sara and her father to reunite again and this is motivated by the promise of her mother to take care of her father when she is lying on her death bed.When she sees the way his new wife is treating her father, she decided to live with her father under the same house. The light of her father seems to be finishing but only Sara knows that it is vital that it should be lit. The path that Sara chooses is not easy. She faces favoritism for being a woman and also because she is living alone, her fellow employees shuns her, her mother wants her to come back, her elder sisters who are unhappy with their life want Sara to find herself a husband.Sara is very lonely and when she meets a friend of Fania, whose name is Max Goldstein, she thinks of getting married to him but later refuses as she comes to know that Max is not interested in her but her possessions. When her father hears about this, he is so angry at Sara that he quickly says that Sara is no longer his daughter. For Sara another fight is her College besides the loneliness and poverty she faces, but Sara wants to live a good, clean and a beautiful life like the people who are around her.She later graduates and finds a job at a New York school. She gets a good salary and with that she buys better clothes, rents a bigger and better apartment. But this ends quickly as she gets to know that her mother is sick. Even though her mother is on the sick bed, her father married another women Mrs. Feinstein who is a widow living upstairs. She is a cruel woman who decides to take money from her new stepchildren. All of the Reb’s four daughters decide to stop talking to their father. Due to her unanticipated poverty, Mrs.Feinstein writes a letter to the principal of the School where Sara is working. The principal, Hugo Seelig after reading the letter becomes more close to Sara and their friendship turns into love after they get to know that they share the same cultural heritage. This relationship helps Sara to get rid of her loneliness and after finding her happiness she decides to go back to her father, Hugo agrees with her and the novel ends with Hugo and Sara inviting Reb Smolinsky to live with them, thus making Sara’s life a happy one. Conclusion:This novel by Anzia Yezierska is based on fiction; the story of the Jewish family of the Smolinsky’s is quite the same which in reality was faces by many Jews who traveled from the Eastern part of Europe. This story tells how did Sara a young girl to struggle and than gained what she always wanted to gain. This novel tells that good knowledge is essential. It is important that you look after your family besides doing religious preaching. This story tells us that if your strong from the inside than you can overcome anything in this world. Conclusion †¢ Yezierska, Anzia. Bread Givers Publisher: Persea Books; New Ed edition (May 1

Thomas Hobbes and the Social Contract Essay - 1300 Words

Thomas Hobbes was the first philosopher to connect the philosophical commitments to politics. He offers a distinctive definition to what man needs in life which is a successful means to a conclusion. He eloquently defines the social contract of man after defining the intentions of man. This paper will account for why Hobbes felt that man was inherently empowered to preserve life through all means necessary, and how he creates an authorization for an absolute sovereign authority to help keep peace and preserve life. Hobbes first defines the nature of man. Inherently man is evil. He will do whatever is morally permissible to self preservation. This definition helps us understand the argument of why Hobbes was pessimistic of man, and†¦show more content†¦That is the preservation of man’s own success. He states, â€Å"by force or wiles to master the persons of all men he can, so long till he see no other power great enough to endanger him. And this is no more than man’s(sic) own conservation requireth, and is generally allowed† (Hobbes, 1994, page 75). Hobbes states that with this singular rule to abide leads to three characteristics of outcome. That man first looks to invade and conquer through competition. He will look to go to war with anyone that gets in the way of a successful end. â€Å"Man is enemy to every man..(therefore) men live without other security† (Hobbes, 1994, page 76). The need to define man as a savage individual leads Hobbes to the Laws of Nature, and will help define the need authorizing an absolute sovereignty. Why is this information important? By defining the intent of man, Hobbes is setting up the need for absolute sovereignty to create a conducive community where man can live with others. If he can establish that man is inherently seeking only for himself, he can create the need for a ruling authority. Hobbes will have to establish a need for man to have to deal with others to live. He will have to come up with a way for man to need to enter an agreement, and the rules of such agreements. The Natural Laws and Contracts that Hobbes introduces that first a definition of man that leads to a conclusion toShow MoreRelatedThomas Hobbes And The Social Contract3563 Words   |  15 PagesThomas Hobbes (1588-1679), an English philosopher published the work, Leviathan, which proposed the concept of the social contract, in which societal assimilation mandates submission to authoritarian rule, with a relinquishment of certain rights, in return for protection and aid. Hobbes offered a foundation al premise for benefits that otherwise might be absent, if not for societal constructs. John Locke, another English philosopher published the Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which expoundedRead MoreSocial Contract Theory Thomas Hobbes2009 Words   |  9 PagesSocial contract theory, nearly as old as philosophy itself, is the view that person s moral and/or political obligations are dependent upon a contract or agreement among them to form the society in which they live. The Social Contract is largely associated with modern moral and political theory, and is given its first full exposition and defense by Thomas Hobbes in his piece, Leviathan. After Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are the best known proponents of this influential theoryRead MoreAn Outline of Thomas Hobbes Social Contract1395 Words   |  6 PagesOutline Hobbes theory on the social contract giving details on what he believed was needed to maintain it. 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I am going to look at the differentRead MorePolitical And Social Contract Theory By Thomas Hobbes951 Words   |  4 PagesSocial contract theory refers to the view that peoples’ political and moral obligations are contingent on an agreement or contact among them to constitute a wholesome society where they can live in harmony. It is often associated with contemporary political and moral theory and was given the first comprehensive exposition by Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes was fearful of man’s violent and lawless nature, perhaps due to his experience during the Puritan revolution. He was of the conviction that self-preservationRead MoreThe Social Contract Theories Of Thomas Hobbes And John Locke1210 Words   |  5 PagesMahogany Mills Professor: Dr. Arnold Political Philosophy 4 February 2015 Compare and contrast the social contract theories of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke In the beginning of time, there was no government to regulate man. This caused a burden on society and these hardships had to be conquered, which is when a social contract was developed. The social contract theory is a model that addresses the questions of the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over an individualRead MoreThomas Hobbes and John Lockes Varying Presentations of the Social Contract Theory1499 Words   |  6 PagesBoth Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are well-known political philosophers and social contract theorists. Social Contract Theory is, â€Å"the hypothesis that one’s moral obligations are dependent upon an implicit agreement between individuals to form a society.† (IEP, Friend). Both Hobbes and Locke are primarily known for their works concerning political philosophy, namely Hobbes’ Leviathan and Locke’s Two Treatise of Government. Both works contain a different view of a State of Nature and lay out social

Essay on Religion in Walt Whitmans Literature - 976 Words

Religion in Walt Whitmans Literature Why should I pray? Why should I venerate and be ceremonious?#8230;#8230;I find no sweeter fat than sticks to my own bones. (pg 40)Nature and all of her wondrous facets, especially the human body, was Whitmans religion. Walt Whitman was indeed an intensely spiritual man in his own unconventional way. His epic classic Song of Myself demonstrates these attitudes of his, and in his view how the proverbial poet of his America should believe. Humanity yearns for spiritual fulfillment and Whitman believed that everything around us and even ourselves were walking testaments to what true ethereal life is. One of the reasons that Walt Whitman was so popular, was his lax treatment of such†¦show more content†¦Smile O voluptuous cool-breathd earth, Earth of the slumbering and liquid tress, earth of the departed sunset- earth of the mountainous misty-topt, earth of the vitreous pour of the full moon just tinged with blue#8230; (pg. 42) Whitman celebrates his love for the earth as one who has a conventional religion celebrates their love for what they believe in. All aspects are sacred of mother earth in the eyes of the poet, as are all facets of belief in the heart of a conventional religious person. Whitman express how great this love is that he feels for his planet by expressing himself unworthy of such greatness. Prodigal, you have given me love- therefore I to you give love, O unspeakable passionate love. (pg. 42) Whitman blatantly expresses himself almost to the point of being stale on how much the earth means to him. Looking past the almost cornieness of this statement, some very powerful messages can be derived from it. Mother earth to the poet, is loved more then words themselves can even express. This is such a powerful statement in this epic poem, because it expresses the reader that no matter how much the American poet should right he can never truly say what he wants to. Again, another blatant example of one of the many contradictions in the poetry of Whitman. He calls out everyone to express themselves on their true unequivocal loves, yet here he admits that no one is reallyShow MoreRelated Individuality in Whitmans Song of Myself Essay1260 Words   |  6 PagesIndividuality in Whitmans Song of Myself During a lecture in 1907, William James said the philosophy which is so important in each of us is not a technical matter; it is our more or less dumb sense of what life honestly means. It is only partly got from books; it is our individual way of just seeing and feeling the total push and pressure of the cosmos (Bartlett 546) Individuality has been a prevalent theme in every type of literature for quite some time. Whether it is a character discoveringRead MoreWalt Whitmans Influences1411 Words   |  6 PagesWalt Whitman’s influence to American Literary History After the Civil War, Walt Whitman realized that the American people were in need of their own identity. Therefore, he wrote the book â€Å"Leaves of Grass† with the goal of creating a literature piece that was authentic and organic to the United States in every sense. Whitman introduced to literature the idea of the â€Å"American Dream† and highlighted how important it was for the American people to develop their own identity. 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Through works like Democratic Vistas and Song of Myself, Whitman gave American society tools to promote creative expression and the essence of democracy. However, Whitman’s methods had to be ad opted over time to touch/bring attention to different social issues. Two authors who were able to branch off of Whitman’s works and ideas were IsadoraRead MoreWalt Whitman s Life That Changed The Way Of Life1690 Words   |  7 Pages Corey Haldiman Goulette Research Paper Walt Whitman Walt used creativity, personal experiences and different ideas in his writing. He moved various times through his childhood, and that may have moved his personality to become slightly neurotic. He has done a lot of things in his life that has changed the way that future poets will write. Walt Whitman entered this world on May thirty-first, eighteen-nineteen in West Hills, New York. He was the second son among nine other children inRead MoreThe Teaching Style Of Walt Whitman1676 Words   |  7 Pagesamazing American wit or poetic, Walt Whitman who lived from May 31st, 1819 until March 26, 1892, this writer was once recognized by Ralph Waldo Emerson for his piece, Leaves of Grass, Emerson himself said, â€Å"The most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom written by an American.† Whitman was a great teacher in more ways than one and we all know this as Walt Whitman’s pedagogy, which is a piece of information that needs to be thoroughly looked at. To be able to critiqu e Whitman’s pedagogy properly, we mustRead MoreEmily Dickinson And Walt Whitman1218 Words   |  5 PagesOften considered the founders of modern American poetry, Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman have styles that are like none other. Although they have many individual, unique characteristics, they also are comparable in numerous ways. 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Myers Briggs Personality Type Pros/Cons Essay - 702 Words

Assignment #4 - Myers Briggs Personality Type Pros/Cons During the power point on the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, as the instructor went through the different types of personalities, I was able to recognize which subcategories I fall into almost instantly. When my computer personality test results were returned, I was correct. As I read the type descriptions of Extroversion, Intuition, Feeling, and Judging- ENFJ- I quickly recognized myself within the descriptive words. The first subset of my personality is Extraversion, as opposed to Introversion. As an extrovert, I would describe myself as social, external and gregarious. This characteristic helps me communicate and reach out to others. However, there are cons that go along†¦show more content†¦When I have things to do, making lists is the first thing I do before going to work. I am firm and resolved in my opinions and certainly hate surprises, all of these things are characteristics of Judgers. ENFJs are described as warm, compassionate, and supportive, as well as loya l and trustworthy. These are all words that I would describe myself as, my most important characteristic being my loyalty in friendship. My type description also proclaims that I am â€Å"highly attuned to others; their empathy enables [me] to quickly understand emotional needs, motivations, and concerns.† No other description of me could be truer. My whole life, I have been quickly able to understand others, and even know that they are upset before they tell me so. Another handout describes ENFJs as having an intense caring about people. The strengths of being an ENFJ as well as a leader include a strong sense of commitment that ENFJs have. As an ENFJ, I am extremely aware of the commitments I make and the effort I put in order to follow through with them. ENFJs are incredibly skilled communicators. This could not be more true for me, as I am incredibly persuasive and able to articulate my thoughts well out loud. ENFJs are often creative people, and I fall into this category as well, as I am an extremely motivated artist and painter. As an ENFJ, I have an incredible sense of understanding others and making sure the needs of my subordinates are happy.Show MoreRelatedPersonality of an Intp1425 Words   |  6 PagesMyers Briggs personality test: The personality of an INTP Abstract An introverted intuitive thinker otherwise known as an INTP personality type is who I am. The research I have conducted explains the way I grow and think as a human being. It will give reason to my nonsocial habits and my tendencies to focus in on problems. This research not only gives understanding to the basic of my personality traits but it demonstrated my strengths and weaknesses as well. INTPs are very logical people andRead MorePsychological and Personality Assessments1677 Words   |  7 PagesPsychological Personality Assessments Used in the Workplace PSY250 Abstract Psychological and Personality Assessments are used by many small employers, Fortune 100 or even Fortune 500 companies. These companies have instilled these tests in their company policies with all new hires or promotional employees. These assessments are used to help all human resources personnel in the decision of hiring or promoting employees. These tests are used as tools to improve personal image, promote or hireRead MoreThe Myer-Briggs Type Indicator665 Words   |  3 Pagesand others, and how our thoughts and personalities are different, working together would (hopefully) be easier. Unfortunately, humans cannot do that. But it hasn’t stopped us from attempting something similar. 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The MBTI was created in 1944 by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers, and is based on Carl Jung’s typological theory. The MBTI seeks to classify people into one of two groups in four different categories. The first pairing of traits attempts to measure whether a person has more of a preference towards extraversion or introversion. The second type pairing compares sensing versus intuition. PeopleRead MoreWho Is Myers Briggs Personality Test?1450 Words   |  6 Pages I have been always sceptical about personality tests, seeing them as another form of horoscope or fortune cookies, which establish a set of vague of personalities descriptions. Although I was aware that Myers Briggs personality test are used by companies all over the world, I knew that they lack scientific credibility. Despite these doubts I have approached the Module 4 Group Assignment with positive and enthusias-tic attitude. 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Effects of centralized vs. decentralized free essay sample

Collective bargaining is a process that through negotiations establishes terms and conditions that are essential for employment. Collective bargaining facilitates coordination between unions and employers in wage setting and other aspects of industrial relations. Although collective bargaining has the general objective of supplementing or supplanting, the free market, it has not followed a uniform pattern of development in different national or industrial situations. Instead, a variety of institutional arrangements have evolved in implementing bargaining relationships between employers and employees organizations. These differences at the structural level of bargaining brought contrasting consequences in the labour market. The bargaining structure refers to the employers and unions that take part in these negotiations and are responsible for the final content of the collective agreement. The structure of bargaining is also important as it affects a broad range of aspects as: the bargaining outcomes, the roles of unions and management and the types of issues that are brought to the table. 2 There are two structures of collective bargaining that are often implemented: centralized and decentralized. Centralized bargaining refers to agreements made at the group level involving many plants and is aimed to protect the working class in industry and at the national level, while decentralized bargaining occurs when agreements refer to just one plant. On the one hand, centralized bargaining is usually associated with lower and less persistent levels of unemployment, less wage dispersion and fewer strikes, whereas decentralized bargaining is associated with higher and more persistent levels of unemployment, more wage dispersion and more strikes. In the essay I will highlight the effects that this two bargaining structures have on wages, inflation, strikes, the bargaining process, and the negotiation process and their influence on the industrial relations system as a whole. 1. Arnold R. Weber, The Structure of Collective Bargaining and Bargaining Power: Foreign Experiences, (Journal of Law and Economics 1963), 117-151. 2. Katz, Harry C. , Industrial and Labor Relations Review, (np: October 1, 1993), article. A phenomenon that is characteristic for many countries is the wage differentials. These wage differentials are those who can determine the degree of centralization of wage bargaining and also have influence on outcomes. In the centralized bargaining process the government has a great involvement, leading to the uniformity of wages, benefits, and other aspects of employment. The centralised wage bargaining is likely to yield real wage moderation and lower unemployment than decentralized bargaining structures because it internalises the negative external effect of bargaining outcomes on the unemployment rate. Also centralized bargaining arrangements moderate wage settlements, reduce work stoppages, labour costs and consequently reduce product pricing. Another benefit of the centralized structure is that it reduces wage dispersion. If firms trade off the losses from an increase in the wage bill against the gains that a higher relative wage yields in terms of higher individual effort, as postulated by the efficiency-wage hypothesis, centralised wage bargaining hinders effort by reducing inter-firm wage dispersion. Thus taking in consideration all these effects that centralized structure has on wages, I can state that centralization encourage wage equality between workers, without reducing their individual efficiency, and the main objectives of the unions that promote this structure is to improve the welfare and the job security of all workers. The centralized bargaining structure has also notable effects on inflation. This kind of structure is associated to yield lower levels of inflation, thereby moderating settlements. These centralized impacts influence the formation of a different political dynamic at work and lead to the achievement of many political objectives of the labour movement. 3. Giorgio Brunello, European Journal of Political Economy, (np: Volume 14, Issue 2, May 1998), 381-406. 4. Giorgio Brunello, 381-406. There is an interdependent interaction between the effects that centralized bargaining creates on wages and inflation. Greater centralization of wage bargaining causes each union in the coordinating group to internalize the tendency of the central bank to respond towage-bargaining centralization by reducing money growth, thereby reducing the incentive of unions to restrain their coordinated wage demands. 5 As a result to this restrains the labour movement may agree to lower wage settlements for getting in return pensions, a better control of prices and more employment guarantees that advantage both workers and unions. â€Å"The interaction between these effects leads to a hump-shaped relationship between the centralization of wage bargaining and inflation, with inflation initially rising with greater centralization and then declining. †6 Analysing the effects that centralized bargaining has on inflation, we can definitely say that they bring a high level of certitude in the society and increase the workers welfare. Another argument that favours the implementation of centralized bargaining is the fact that it leads to fewer strikes. This aspect is due to the existence of greater similarity of wages, benefits and other terms of employment. â€Å"Such a finding, however, seems almost axiomatic, given that such structures involve many fewer sets of negotiations at any given time than decentralized ones. †7 The negotiations in centralized bargaining are conducted by skilful negotiators that are capable to settle the interests of all parties that take part at the negotiations, thereby diminishing the probability of a conflict or a strike. In a centralized structure workers are more informed and also have an easier access to Daniels, Joseph P. , Nourzad, Farrokh, VanHoose, David D. , Openness, centralized wage bargaining, and inflation, European Journal of Political Economy,(np: Dec 2006, Vol. 22 Issue 4), 970. 6. Daniels, Joseph P. , Nourzad, Farrokh, VanHoose, David D. , 970. 7. Jon Peirce, Karen Joy Bentham, Canadian Industrial Relations, (Toronto 2007), 250. In a centralized structure workers are more informed and also have an easier access to information as demand conditions and wages, thus reducing the likelihood of conflicts, strikes or wild-cat strikes. The influence that the government holds in this structure also has evident effects on strikes, because it can prevent or end them quickly. â€Å"Thus it is not centralization itself, but the shift in the locus of conflict that often accompanies it that seems to be the main reason for reduced industrial conflicts in countries with centralized structure. †8 Concluding the above effects that centralization has on strikes, we can observe that it helps to build in society better working relations and also stimulate unions and employers to find common goals that advantage both parties. The bargaining process is another component on which centralization has influence. It makes the development of this process more smoothly because it is conducted by efficient negotiators and authoritarian managers that can keep the situation under control and achieve positive results. However the big number of unions and manager fractions that are involved in the bargaining process makes it development more slow. When having a centralized bargaining process the parties involved can obtain what they want by combining the interests of both parties. â€Å"Unions need centralized bargaining process either formally, by way of a single agreement, or informally, through pattern bargaining both to standardize labour costs in an industry and to be able to inflict economic damage on employers through strike action. †9 The bargaining process leads the parties to obtain reciprocal gain in the area where they both have interests. Through the development of the bargaining processes in centralized way the unions and the employers try to increase the stability of the industrial relations and to achieve savings. The centralization of this process creates large, heterogeneous and broadly based bargaining units that are thus harder to organize. 8. Jon Peirce, Karen Joy Bentham, Canadian Industrial Relations, (Toronto 2007), 250. 9. Lawrence Mishel, The Structural Determinants of Union Bargaining Power, Industrial and Labour Relations Review, (np: Vol. 40, No. 1, Oct. 1986), 99. In conclusion, analysing the centralized bargaining process and its effects, we denote that there are positive impacts, the process is smooth, and negative impacts, it develops slower, that interfere. So we cannot say to which extent this process is advantageous to implement. The negotiation process in centralized bargaining structure is lead on industry-wide basis. In this process the parties that take part try to influence each other for achieving their purposes. Usually in this kind of centralized process is negotiated a single collective agreement across several different workplaces by the same employer and union. This centralization leads to inefficiency because it addresses to general problems that arise between the parties. â€Å"Centralized negotiations by their nature tend to encompass issues of general importance, thereby omitting issues of local concern. †10 Centralized negotiations are often harder to achieve, mainly because of the great number of members involved in the process. The complex issues that are brought at the table require a great physical and mental implication of the members, leading to possible strikes or lockouts. â€Å"Negotiations between union and management typically address a broader range of issues than most commercial contracts and the issues themselves are often more complex than those raised in the average commercial transactions. †11 The strategies that negotiators choose to implement are influenced in a great part by the goals that they tend to achieve and thus, centralized negotiations enforce parties to decide carefully what main objectives they want to negotiate. Also they have to ensure that the chosen strategy is effective and can influence the other party that expect some sort of give and take proposals that favour the process. Taking in consideration the great responsibilities, risks and influences that centralized negotiation processes imply, there is no doubt that they have important effects on industrial relationships and only experienced people can succeed to achieve positive result for the both parties without causing conflicts and maintaining a good development at he workplace. 10. Jon Peirce, Karen Joy Bentham, Canadian Industrial Relations, (Toronto 2007), 250-251. 11. Jon Peirce, Karen Joy Bentham, 251. Another bargaining structure that has important effects on different aspects of the industrial relations is the decentralized structure. If speaking about the effects of the decentralized structure with regard to wages, than we can observe that this structure generally leads to greater dispersion between higher and lower-paid workers and greater union, non-union wage differentials. †12 In a decentralized collective bargaining the wages are established by each firm thus, the financial decentralized wage gains lead to unemployment. This increase in unemployment creates a very difficult social situation, because finding a job for unemployed people is much harder. â€Å"Wallerstein (1999), reports that â€Å"a lasting move from highly centralized bargaining to a system of industry-level bargaining would raise the predicted wage differential by 50 percent, while a shift in the level at which wages are set from plant-level to industry-level would reduce wage differentials by 30%. †13 Also decentralization brings more wage flexibility and leads to a greater wage dispersion. The existence of this flexibility in the decentralized collective bargaining can be as well manifested through the diversity of specific goals and tactics that are embraced by the individual unions and employers. Unlike centralized structure, in the decentralized structure each union is free to establish its own goals without a great involvement of the government. In this bargaining structure the employer organizations are not usually engaged in alliances or economic blocs, being rather followers of more individual prospects. Assuming all this, we realize that the decentralized collective bargaining structure has more detrimental effects over the wages and the labour market, creating evident distinctions between different classes of workers and thus leading to social conflicts, competitiveness and reduced individual efficiency. 12. Charlotta Groth and Asa Johansson, European Economic Review (np: Volume 48, Issue 6, December 2004), 1349-1365. 13. Golden, Miriam A. and Londregan, John B. , American Journal of Political Science,(np: Vol. 50, Issue 1, Jan 2006), p208-213. The inflation in decentralized bargaining has higher levels and yields negative effects on the labour market. This consequently leads to reinforced lower outcomes and to a bad material situation of the working class. â€Å"A movement to a more decentralized collective bargaining structure would create more inflation while an increase in the weight of the national industry agreements would reduce the rate of inflation. †14 The existence of high levels of inflation will have direct impact on workers benefits, reducing them and thus depriving employees from having tax reforms, vacation benefits, higher pensions or better price control. The wage setting has important effects on the inflation level, as in decentralized bargaining there is a bigger demand of wage increase. â€Å"Inflation initially rises when an increased share of firms have wage setters that coordinate their wage setting activities but then declines with ever increasing centralization of wage bargaining. †15 Where decentralized bargaining structure exists, workers don’t have the willing to accept lower wages in exchange of more benefits, neither want to renounce in an easy manner to their goals. Assuming these effects, we denote that inflation causes big disadvantages for unions as well as for employers, and slackens the development of good relations between them. Unlike in the centralized bargaining where strikes are few, in the decentralized bargaining we have more strikes. This effect is due primarily because of great wage differentials, and dispersion. When the bargaining process takes places between single-employer, single-establishment, single-union, employees don’t have much access to information and don’t benefit of different terms of employment. The fact that government don’t have a great implication in this bargaining process, allow the employer to get rid of the union easier. 14. Jesus Ferreiro, Decentralized versus centralized collective bargaining: is the collective bargaining structure in Spain efficient? , Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, (Armonk: Vol. 26, Iss. 4, 2004), 695. 15. Daniels, Joseph P. , Nourzad, Farrokh, VanHoose, David D. , Openness, centralized wage bargaining, and inflation, European Journal of Political Economy,( np: Dec 2006, Vol. 22 Issue 4), 979. As the structure is decentralized is easy for the employer to force concessions, and the costs of strikes are not so big. â€Å"A strike is more costly to firms whose production processes are labour intensive. †16 If the production processes relies more on capital and are automated, the employers can continue at least partial production process. Making a global analysis on the effects that decentralized bargaining has on strikes, we can assert that they aggravate the relations between union and employers by making harder the finding of a common denominator that could please both parties. The strikes have a long duration and this harm the working process. The bargaining process in the decentralized structure occurs in small, community based, homogenous bargaining units that are easy to organize and to manage. Decentralized negotiations often occur between a single employer and a single union, thereby resulting in a great number of collective agreements that cover relatively few workers. 17 In such structure the parties can bargain based on their own circumstances, thus the development of the process is quicker. Unlike in centralized bargaining where the Employer has full control on the process, in the decentralized one, the employer doesn’t want to surrender control. The bargaining process implies comprehensive change, openness, professionalism and the spending of time and resources, for having finally positive achievements. Single–employer, single-union bargaining are efficient because of the little numbers of people that take part in it and have the possibility to express their desire. Even if many of them have different occupation but work in the same establishment people think that they have enough in common to bargain together. Studying the above information, we are able to say that the decentralized bargaining process is one in which employees can express themselves in a more freely way and can require from their employers more benefits that centralized worker. 16. Jon Peirce, Karen Joy Bentham, Canadian Industrial Relations, (Toronto 2007), 263. 17. Jon Peirce, Karen Joy Bentham, 245. The negotiation process that is a component of the bargaining process, is also affected by the decentralized structure. To some extent it resembles the bargaining process through the great number of collective agreements and the fact that it occurs between single-employer, single-union. A great advantage that decentralized negotiations have is the fact that they encompass not only issues of general importance but also local issues, thus leading to better internal relationships at the workplace. â€Å"Unions must negotiate contracts which cover the relevant workforce either directly, as in industry wide agreements, or indirectly through strong settlement patterns among companies. †18 This action removes the wages of the relevant work force from competition. In the negotiation process, both unions and management negotiators represent different parties involved in the labour process that share diverse opinions and are often implied in conflicts. The union-management negotiation are conducted by representatives of the parties; thus, the negotiators must emerge with a settlement acceptable not just to their bargaining team but to their principals, who were not involved in the actual negotiations but who have the ultimate say as to whether the tentative agreement is accepted or rejected. 19 So we can denote from the. Above information that the negotiation process in the decentralized structure is essential for having a benefic development of the internal as well as external relations between union, managers, employees and employers. It helps to find a consensus and also through this process the parties involved try to respect the rights of the opponent but also meet their obligations thus, we can state that in decentralized structure the negotiation process is more productive and efficient. 18. Lawrence Mishel, The Structural Determinants of Union Bargaining Power, Industrial and Labour Relations Review, (np: Vol. 40, No. 1, Oct. 1986), 94. Jon Peirce, Karen Joy Bentham, Canadian Industrial Relations, (Toronto 2007), 252. Finally, after enumerating and explaining the effects that both centralized and decentralized bargaining structures have on wages, inflation, strikes, the bargaining process and the negotiation process, we can accentuate that they are primordial elements in the domain of industrial relations. We have seen that centralized bargaining has good influences on wage dispersion and wage differentials as it reduces them and leads to equality, whereas decentralized bargaining increases them and creates inequality and competitiveness between workers. Unlike in decentralized bargaining, in centralized structures inflation and strikes they also have reduced levels thus, contributes to the development of a stable society and a good economic level in it. The bargaining and the negotiation processes have a great effectiveness in decentralized structures than in the centralized ones, because they deal with a broader range of local issues and have a quicker development. Although these two structures have different effects on society, we cannot say that they don’t interact in some circumstances, and that the implementation of only one of them can lead to total welfare in the society. Analyzing all these, we realized the great importance that collective bargaining has for unionized workers, offering them the possibility to work in good conditions and to have many employment benefits. â€Å"Unionized workers enjoy a significantly greater voice in the workplace, thanks mainly to the grievance process. †20 Even if this system is far from being perfect, at the present time it’s the best for the determination of pay and working conditions. While the adversarial nature of the process and the length and complexity of most collective agreements are regrettable, they are likely inevitable so long as management continues to resist unions fiercely, and as long as bargaining remains highly decentralized, thus forcing most conflict to be worked out at the bargaining table rather than in the political arena. 21 20. Jon Peirce, Karen Joy Bentham, Canadian Industrial Relations, (Toronto 2007), 265. 21. Jon Peirce, Karen Joy Bentham, 265.