Vaccination For The Immigrant Families - 2201 Words

Vaccination outreach to immigrant families in the U.S Lucero Osorio-Torillo AP Biology Today immigrants make up approximately 13% of the U.S. population. From 1900 to 1930, immigrants made up somewhere around 12% and 15% of the population (which is about forty two to forty eight million people), and similar increases happened in the 1850s and 1880s. Close to 47 percent of immigrants are naturalized citizens and the remaining 53 percent are undocumented immigrants. Immigrants, being the largest and most rapidly growing population in the U.S., still have the lowest access to medical care, making it difficult to access medical attention like vaccines. Many of the key reasons as to why getting medical attention is so hard is due to the high cost of medical care, having poor work benefits, not being able to qualify for medical care, and fear of having to provide documentation if a case ever involves being an undocumented immigrant, because legal status can have a big impact on eligibility for any health care service. Not getting vaccinations could have many consequences. N ot getting a vaccine can make someone very vulnerable to getting sick, causing social implications like exclusion and isolation from others in order to not risk others getting sick as well. Unvaccinated children can require treatment that is not quite the same as normal, medical staff may be less commonplace, and less experienced, with the systems required to fittingly treat a child who isShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Immunization On The National Health System And Governmental Entities945 Words   |  4 Pages Focus group and key informant interviews among Somali parents revealed multiple cultural barriers contributing to the low vaccination intake in Somali children. The Somali community is an oral society and any negative encounter, experienced by one member, will be spread throughout the wider community. The mistrust in the healthcare system and governmental entities appears to arise from historical remnants of the repressive Somali State where people lived under fear and any â€Å"sensitive† informationRead MoreThe Concepts Of Public Health Nursing Essay1745 Words   |  7 Pagesto leave their own country and migrate to the United States (U.S) wanting a better life for themselves and their families. Many of them see this country as a land of opportunity. According to the 2013 American Community survey (ACS) published by the United States Census Bureau, there are 1.4 million legal and illegal immigrant population residing in the country. The illegal immigrants who come from dive rse ethnic groups and are of various age group. One of the problem that the America is facing rightRead MoreThe Incidence Of Cervical Cancer983 Words   |  4 Pagesrates were found among Hispanic women in the Midwest, likely due to large numbers of new immigrants in this region (ACS, 2016). This paper will briefly analyze the most relevant literature related to the incidence of cervical cancer the relationship with Human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccination rates among Hispanic women. METHODS My search consisted of the words; HPV and Hispanic women, HPV vaccination and Hispanic women, HPV rates among Hispanics, access to HPV vaccine, cervical cancer, healthRead MoreList Main Components : Agent, Host, And Environment1336 Words   |  6 Pagesis a standard health model that is used to analyze different issues in public health and it is consist of three main components: Agent, Host, and Environment. In HBV triangle – Host factor – Human, is the only host for HBV. (immune status, age, vaccination status play important role for susceptibility of virus.).As was mentioned above, most common HBV is perinatal transmission (from mother to infant at birth).HBsAg and HBeAg positive mother will have infected the baby. But risk only about 10 % -Read MoreInfluenza Is A Serious Illness1291 Words   |  6 Pagesinfluence influenza illness and outbreaks in the US. Although there are several factors that may impact influenza (See Figure 1), we focus specifically on modifiable social determinants, including poor access to healthcare services and influenza vaccination, individual- and neighborhood-level factors, and social policies. We contend that a social determinant framework provides a more comprehensive understanding of the existing structures and policies that promote influenza illness and outbreaks andRead MoreGrowing Racial And Ethnic Diversity Within The United States920 Words   |  4 PagesTh is article discussed the growing racial and ethnic diversity in the United States. There are increasing numbers of aging adults who are immigrants, non-white, and ethnic minorities. The article stated, â€Å"Eight in ten older Americans are non-Hispanic whites.† However, there are less than two-thirds of Americans younger than age 65 which are non-Hispanic whites. Furthermore, the article stated, â€Å"In the total population, whites could lose their majority status as early as 2042.† Therefore, the UnitedRead MoreShould Vaccination Be Given to Children1208 Words   |  5 Pagescould children protect themselves from diseases one may ask? Taking vaccination early will not only protect you from diseases, but greatly improve your immune system to counter all the other diseases. The invention of medical immunizations has not only been used to heal from the disease, but also to keep the spread of disease low. Having immunizations available have greatly lowered the amount of deaths in the world. Vaccination should continue to stay mandatory because it keeps diseases from spreadingRead MoreMandatory Vaccination, and the High Risk of Vaccine-preventable Disease (VPD) to the Vaccine Refusal.1361 Words   |  6 PagesVaccinations demonstrate the benefits of preventing suffering and death from infectious diseases. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Vaccinations were approved as a number one on the list of the Ten Great Public Health Achievements for the United States from 1900 to 1999. If a critical number of people within a community are vaccinated against a particular illness, the entire group becomes less likely to get the disease. This protection is called community, or herdRead MoreThe Mmr Vaccine Did Cause Autism1415 Words   |  6 Pagesvalues and beliefs. For example, in Texas, a megachurch voiced vaccination concerns and all believed that it was not safe to vaccinate (Silverman, 2013). They were convinced that the MMR vaccine did cause autism. There were many families that were part of the church that had a history of autism in their family, and did not want to chance it. So instead of asking for a different schedule of vaccines and not bundling the MMR, the families and others opted out of the MMR vaccine entirely (Silverman, 2013)Read MoreHat Task 31308 Words   |  6 Pageskilling 158,000 people a year, roughly 430 deaths a day. Deaths from measles are not common in developed countries, with the mortality rate at .1%, but in developing countries without substantial healthcare the mortality rate can be as high as 10%. Vaccinations have increased and has saved lives, and deaths from measles has decreased by 78% since the launching the vaccine. (Center of Disease Control, 2012). Measles is highly contagious, and can be contracted from air droplets through the mouth, throat

The Atlantic System and Africa free essay sample

The Atlantic System and Africa, 1550-1800 10. Plantations in the West Indies AY. Colonization Before 1650 * 10. Spanish settlers introduced sugar-cane cultivation into the West Indies shortly after 1 500 but did not do much else toward the further development of the islands. After 1600 the F-ranch and English developed colonies based on tobacco cultivation. * 20. Tobacco consumption became popular in England in the early 16005. Tobacco production in the West Indies was stimulated by two new developments: the formation of chartered companies and the availability of cheap labor in the form of European indentured servants. 30. In the mid-sass competition from milder Virginia tobacco and the expulsion of experienced Dutch sugar producers from Brazil combined to bring the West Indian economies from tobacco to sugar production. * 40. The Portuguese had introduced sugar-cane cultivation to Brazil, and the Dutch West India Company, chartered to bring the Dutch wars against Spain to the New World, had taken control of 1 ,OOH miles of sugar-producing Brazilian coast. We will write a custom essay sample on The Atlantic System and Africa or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Over a fifteen-year period the Dutch improved the efficiency f the Brazilian sugar industry and brought slaves from Elmira and Land (also seized from Portugal)to Brazil and the West Indies. 50. When Portugal reconnected Brazil in 1 654, the Dutch sugar planters brought the Brazilian system to the French and English Caribbean Islands. BOO. Sugar and Slaves * 10. Between 1640 and the sass colonies like Guadalupe, Martinique, and particularly Barbados made the transition from a tobacco economy to a sugar economy. In the process of doing so, their demand for labor caused a sharp and significant increase in the volume of the Atlantic slave trade. 0.The shift from European indentured servants to enslaved African labor was caused by a number of factors, including a decline in the numbers of Europeans willing to indenture themselves to the West Indies, the fact that the life expectancy of a slave after landing was longer than the term of the typical contract of indenture, and a rise in sugar prices that made planters more able to invest in slaves. 110. Plantation Life in the Eighteenth Century AY. Technology and Environment * 10. Sugar plantations both grew sugar cane and processed the cane into sugar crystals, molasses, and rum.The technology for growing and harvesting cane was simple, but the machinery required for processing (rollers, copper kettles, and so on) was more complicated and expensive. The expenses Of sugar production led planters to seek economies of scale by running large plantations. * 20. Sugar production damaged the environment by causing soil exhaustion and deforestation. Repeated cultivation of sugar cane exhausted the soil of the plantations and led the planters to open new fields, thus accelerating the deforestation that had begun under the Spanish. * 30.European colonization led to the introduction of European and African lands and animals that crowded out indigenous species. Colonization also pushed the Arrack and then the Carob people to extinction. BOO. Slaves Lives * 10. West Indian society consisted of a wealthy land-owning plutocracy, their many slaves, and a few people in between. * 20. A plantation had to extract as much labor as possible from its slaves in order to turn a profit. Slaves were organized into gangs for fieldwork, while those male slaves not doing fieldwork were engaged in specialized tasks. * 30.Slaves were rewarded for good work and punished harshly for failure to meet their reduction quotas or for any form of resistance. On Sundays, slaves cultivated their own food crops and did other chores; they had very little rest and relaxation, no education, and little time or opportunity for family life. * 40. Disease, harsh working conditions, and dangerous mill machinery all contributed to the short life expectancy of slaves in the Caribbean. The high mortality rate added to the volume of the Atlantic slave trade and meant that the majority of slaves on West Indian plantations were born in Africa. 50. Slaves frequently ran away and occasionally staged violent rebellions such as hat led by a slave named Tacky in Jamaica in 1760. European planters sought to prevent rebellions by curtailing African cultural traditions, religions, and languages. CO. Free Whites and Free Blacks * 10. In Saint Dominion there were three groups of free people: the wealthy great whites, the less-well-off little whites, and the free blacks. In the British colonies, where sugar almost completely dominated the economy, there were very few free small landholders, white or black. 20. Only a very wealthy man could afford the capital to invest in the land, machinery, and slaves needed to establish a sugar plantation. West Indian planters were very wealthy and translated their wealth into political power, controlling the colonial assemblies and even gaining a number of seats in the British Parliament. ;k 30. Slave owners who fathered children by female slaves often gave both mother and child their freedom; over time, this practice (manumission) produced a significant free black population. Another source of free black population was runaway slaves, known in the Caribbean as maroons. 1110. Creating the Atlantic Economy AY. Capitalism and Mercantilism * 10. The system of royal monopoly control of colonies and their trade as recited by Spain and Portugal in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries proved to be inefficient and expensive. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the two new institutions of capitalism and mercantilism established the framework within which government-protected private enterprise participated in the Atlantic economy. 20 . The mechanisms of early capitalism included banks, joint-stock companies, stock exchanges, and insurance. * 30. Mercantilism was a number of state policies that promoted private investment in overseas trade and accumulation of capital in the form of precious metals. The instruments of mercantilism included chartered companies, such as the Dutch West India Company and the French Royal African Company, and the use of military force to pursue commercial dominance. * 40.The French and English eliminated Dutch competition from the Americas by defeating the Dutch in a series of wars between 1652 and 1678. The French and the English then revoked the monopoly privileges of their chartered companies, but continued to use high tariffs to prevent foreigners from gaining access to trade with their colonies. The Atlantic became the major trading area for the British, the French, and the Portuguese n the eighteenth century. 80. The Atlantic Circuit * 10.The Atlantic Circuit was a clockwise network of trade routes going from Europe to Africa, from Africa to the plantation colonies Of the Americas (the Middle Passage), and then from the colonies to Europe. If all went well, a ship would make a profit on each leg of the circuit. * 20. The Atlantic Circuit was supplemented by a number of other trade routes: Europe to the Indian Ocean, Europe to the West Indies, New England to the West Indies, and the Triangular Trade between New England, Africa, and the West Indies. 30. As the Atlantic system developed, increased demand for sugar in seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe was associated with an increase in the flow of slaves from Africa to the New World. * 40. The slave trade was a highly specialized business in which chartered companies(in the seventeenth century) and then private traders (in the eighteenth century) purchased slaves in Africa, packed them into specially designed or modified ships, and delivered them for sale to the plantation colonies. * 50.Disease, maltreatment, suicide, and psychological depression all contributed to the average death rate of one out of every six slaves shipped on the Middle Passage. Disease was the single most important cause of death, killing the European crewmen of the slave ships at roughly the same rate as it killed the slaves themselves. VIVO. Africa, the Atlantic, and Islam AY. The Gold Coast and the Slave Coast * 10. European trade with Africa grew tremendously after 1 650 as merchants sought to purchase slaves and other goods.The growth in the slave trade was accompanied by continued trade in other goods, but it did not lead to any significant European colonization Of Africa. 20. African merchants were discriminating about the types and the amounts of merchandise that they demanded in return for slaves and other goods, and they raised the price of slaves in response to increased demand. African governments on the Gold and Slave Coasts were strong enough to make Europeans observe African trading customs, while the Europeans, competing with each other for African trade, were unable to present a strong united bargaining position. 30. Exchange of slaves for firearms contributed to state formation in the Gold and Slave Coasts. The kingdom of Doomed used rearms acquired in the slave trade in order to expand its territory, while the kingdoms of Oho and Sensate had interests both in the Atlantic trade and in overland trade with their northern neighbors. * 40. The African kings and merchants of the Gold and Slave Coasts obtained slaves from among the prisoners of war captured in conflicts between African kingdoms. BOO. The Bight of Bavaria and Angola * 10.There were no sizeable states-?and no large-scale wars-?in the interior of the Bight of Bavaria; kidnapping was the main source of people to sell into slavery. African traders who specialized in procuring people for he slave trade did business at inland markets or fairs and brought the slaves to the coast for sale. * 20. In the Portuguese-held territory of Angola, Afro- Portuguese caravan merchants brought trade goods to the interior and exchanged them for slaves, whom they transported to the coast for sale to Portuguese middlemen, who then sold the slaves to slave dealers for shipment to Brazil.Many of these slaves were prisoners of war, a byproduct generated by the wars of territorial expansion fought by the federation of Landau kingdoms. * 30. Enslavement has also been linked to environ mental rises in the interior of Angola. Droughts forced refugees to flee to kingdoms in better-watered areas, where the kings traded the grown male refugees to slave dealers in exchange for Indian textiles and European goods that they then used to cement old alliances, attract new followers, and build a stronger, larger state. * 40.Although the organization Of the Atlantic trade varied from place to place, it was always based on a partnership between European traders and a few African political and merchant elites who benefited from the trade while many more Africans suffered from it. CO. Africans European ND Islamic Contacts * 10. In the centuries between 1550 and 1800 Europeans built a growing trade with Africa but did not acquire very much African territory. The only significant European colonies were those on islands; the Portuguese in Angola, and the Dutch Cape Colony, which was tied to the Indian Ocean trade rather than to the Atlantic trade. 20. Muslim territorial dominance was much more significant, with the Ottoman Empire controlling all of North Africa except Morocco and with Muslims taking large amounts of territory from Ethiopia. In the 1 sass Morocco attacked the sub-Sahara Muslim mining Of Shanghai, occupying the area for the next two centuries and causing the bulk of the trans-Sahara trade in gold, textiles, leather goods, and kola nuts to shift from the western Sudan to the central Sudan. * 30.The trans-Sahara slave trade was smaller in volume than the Atlantic slave trade and supplied slaves for the personal slave army of the Moroccan rulers as well as slaves for sugar plantation labor, servants, and artisans. The majority of slaves transported across the Sahara were women destined for service as concubines or servants and children, including eunuchs, meant for revive as harem guards. * 40. Muslims had no moral objection to owning or trading in slaves, but religious law forbade the enslavement of fellow Muslims.Even so, some Muslim states south of the Sahara did enslave African Muslims. * 50. Muslim cultural influences south of the Sahara were much stronger than European cultural influences. Islam and the Arabic language spread more rapidly than Christianity and English, which were largely confined to the coastal trading centers. * 60. The European and Islamic slave trade could not have had a significant effect on the overall population of he African continent, but they did have an acute effect on certain areas from which large numbers of people were taken into slavery.The higher proportion of women taken across the Sahara in the Muslim slave trade magnified its long-term demographic effects. 70. The volume Of trade goods imported into sub-Sahara Africa was not large enough to have had any significant effect on the livelihood of traditional African artisans. Both African and European merchants benefited from this trade, but Europeans directed the Atlantic system and derived greater benefit from it than the African merchants did.

Battle of the Monongahela in the French and Indian War

Battle of the Monongahela in the French and Indian War The Battle of Monongahela was fought on July 9, 1755, during the French and Indian War (1754-1763) and represented a failed attempt by the British to capture the French post at Fort Duquesne. Leading a slow advance north from Virginia, General Edward Braddock encountered a mixed French and Native American force near his objective. In the resulting engagement, his men struggled with the forest landscape and he fell mortally wounded. After Braddock was hit, the British ranks collapsed and the looming defeat turned into a rout. Fort Duquesne would remain in French hands for four more years. Assembling an Army In the wake of Lieutenant Colonel George Washingtons defeat at Fort Necessity in 1754, the British decided to mount a larger expedition against Fort Duquesne (present-day Pittsburgh, PA) the following year. Led by Braddock, the commander-in-chief of British forces in North America, the operation was to be one of many against French forts on the frontier. Though the most direct route to Fort Duquesne was through Pennsylvania, Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia successfully lobbied to have the expedition depart from his colony. Though Virginia lacked the resources to support the campaign, Dinwiddie desired the military road that would be built by Braddock to pass through his colony as it would benefit his business interests. Arriving at Alexandria, VA in early 1755, Braddock began assembling his army which was centered on the under-strength 44th and 48th Regiments of Foot. Selecting Fort Cumberland, MD as his departure point, Braddocks expedition was beset with administrative issues from the outset. Hampered by a lack of wagons and horses, Braddock required the timely intervention of Benjamin Franklin to supply sufficient numbers of both. Braddocks Expedition After some delay, Braddocks army, numbering around 2,400 regulars and militia, departed Fort Cumberland on May 29. Among those in the column was Washington who had been appointed as an aide-de-camp to Braddock. Following the trail blazed by Washington the year before, the army moved slowly as it needed to widen the road to accommodate the wagons and artillery. After moving around twenty miles and clearing the eastern branch of the Youghiogheny River, Braddock, on Washingtons advice, split the army in two. While Colonel Thomas Dunbar advanced with the wagons, Braddock rushed ahead with around 1,300 men. The First of the Problems Though his flying column was not encumbered with the wagon train, it still moved slowly. As a result, it became plagued by supply and disease problems as it crawled along. As his men moved north, they met light resistance from Native Americans allied with the French. Braddocks defensive arrangements were sound and few men were lost in these engagements. Nearing Fort Duquesne, Braddocks column was required to cross the Monongahela River, march two miles along the east bank, and then re-ford at Fraziers Cabin. Braddock expected both crossing to be contested, and was surprised when no enemy troops appeared. Fording the river at Fraziers Cabin on July 9, Braddock re-formed the army for the final seven-mile push to the fort. Alerted to the British approach, the French planned to ambush Braddocks column as they knew the fort could not withstand the British artillery. Leading a force of around 900 men, most of which were Native American warriors, Captain Lià ©nard de Beaujeu was delayed in departing. As a result, they encountered the British advance guard, led by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage, before they could set the ambush. Armies Commanders British Major General Edward Braddock1,300 men French Indians Captain Lià ©nard de BeaujeuCaptain Jean-Daniel Dumas891 men The Battle of  Monongahela Opening fire on the approaching French and Native Americans, Gages men killed de Beaujeu in their opening volleys. Attempting to make a stand with his three companies, Gage was soon outflanked as Captain Jean-Daniel Dumas rallied de Beaujeus men and pushed them through the trees. Under heavy pressure and taking casualties, Gage ordered his men to fall back on Braddocks men. Retreating down the trail, they collided with the advancing column and confusion began to reign. Unused to forest fighting, the British attempted to form their lines while the French and Native Americans fired on them from behind cover (Map). As smoke filled the woods, British regulars accidentally fired on friendly militia believing them to be the enemy. Flying around the battlefield, Braddock was able to stiffen his lines as makeshift units began to offer resistance. Believing that his mens superior discipline would carry the day, Braddock continued the fight. After about three hours, Braddock was hit in the chest by bullet. Falling from his horse, he was carried to the rear. With their commander down, British resistance collapsed and they began falling back towards the river. Defeat Becomes a Rout As the British retreated, the Native Americans surged forward. Wielding tomahawks and knives, they caused a panic in the British ranks which turned the retreat into a rout. Gathering what men he could, Washington formed a rear guard which allowed many of the survivors to escape. Re-crossing the river, the beaten British were not pursued as the Native Americans set about looting and scalping the fallen. Aftermath The Battle of the Monongahela cost the British 456 killed and 422 wounded. French and Native American casualties are not known with precision but are speculated to have been around 30 killed and wounded. The survivors of the battle retreated back down the road until reuniting with Dunbars advancing column. On July 13, as the British camped near Great Meadows, not far from the site of Fort Necessity, Braddock succumbed to his wound. Braddock was buried the next day in the middle of the road. The army then marched over the grave to eliminate any trace of it in order to prevent the generals body being recovered by the enemy. Not believing that he could continue the expedition, Dunbar elected to withdraw towards Philadelphia. Fort Duquesne would finally be taken by British forces in 1758, when an expedition led by General John Forbes reached the area. In addition to Washington, the Battle of the Monongahela featured several prominent officers who would later serve in the American Revolution (1775-1783) including Horatio Gates, Charles Lee, and Daniel Morgan.

Prehistoric Life During the Devonian Period

Prehistoric Life During the Devonian Period From a human perspective, the Devonian period was a crucial time for the evolution of vertebrate life: this was the period in geological history when the first tetrapods climbed out of the primordial seas and began to colonize dry land. The Devonian occupied the middle part of the Paleozoic Era (542-250 million years ago), preceded by the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods and followed by the Carboniferous and Permian periods. Climate and Geography The global climate during the Devonian period was surprisingly mild, with average ocean temperatures of only 80 to 85 degrees Fahrenheit (compared to as high as 120 degrees during the preceding Ordovician and Silurian periods). The North and South Poles were only marginally cooler than the areas closer to the equator, and there were no ice caps; the only glaciers were to be found atop high mountain ranges. The smallish continents of Laurentia and Baltica gradually merged to form Euramerica, while the giant Gondwana (which was destined to break apart millions of years later into Africa, South America, Antarctica, and Australia) continued its slow southward drift. Terrestrial Life Vertebrates. It was during the Devonian period that the archetypal evolutionary event in the history of life  took place: the adaptation of lobe-finned fish to life on dry land. The two best candidates for the earliest tetrapods (four-footed vertebrates) are Acanthostega and Ichthyostega, which themselves evolved from earlier, exclusively marine vertebrates like Tiktaalik and Panderichthys. Surprisingly, many of these early tetrapods possessed seven or eight digits on each of their feet, meaning they represented dead ends in evolution since all terrestrial vertebrates on earth today employ the five-finger, five-toe body plan. Invertebrates. Although tetrapods were certainly the biggest news of the Devonian period, they werent the only animals that colonized  dry land. There was also a wide array of small arthropods, worms, flightless insects and other pesky invertebrates, which took advantage of the complex terrestrial plant ecosystems that started to develop at this time to gradually spread inland (though still not too far away from bodies of water). During this time, though, the vast bulk of life on earth lived deep in the water. Marine Life The Devonian period marked both the apex and the extinction of the placoderms, prehistoric fish characterized by their tough armor plating (some placoderms, such as the enormous Dunkleosteus, attained weights of three or four tons). As noted above, the Devonian also teemed with lobe-finned fish, from which the first tetrapods evolved, as well as relatively new ray-finned fish, the most populous family of fish on earth today. Relatively small sharkssuch as the bizarrely ornamented Stethacanthus and the weirdly scaleless Cladoselachewere an increasingly common sight in the Devonian seas. Invertebrates like sponges and corals continued to flourish, but the ranks of the trilobites were thinned out, and only the giant eurypterids (invertebrate sea scorpions) successfully competed with vertebrate sharks for prey. Plant Life It was during the Devonian period that the temperate regions of the earths evolving continents first became truly green. The Devonian witnessed the first significant jungles and forests, the spread of which was aided by the evolutionary competition among plants to gather as much sunlight as possible (in a dense forest canopy, a tall tree has a significant advantage in harvesting energy over a tiny shrub). The trees of the late Devonian period were the first to evolve rudimentary bark (to support their weight and protect their trunks), as well as robust internal water-conduction mechanisms that helped to counteract the force of gravity. The End-Devonian Extinction The end of the Devonian period ushered in the second great extinction of prehistoric life on earth, the first being the mass extinction event at the end of the Ordovician period. Not all animal groups were affected equally by the End-Devonian Extinction: reef-dwelling placoderms and trilobites were especially vulnerable, but deep-sea organisms escaped relatively unscathed. The evidence is sketchy, but many paleontologists believe that the Devonian extinction was caused by multiple meteor impacts, debris from which may have poisoned the surfaces of lakes, oceans, and rivers.

Quiz Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Quiz - Coursework Example The girls, on the other hand, who display more masculine traits, are considered abnormal in the society as they do contrary to the expectation of their gender (Butler, 2011). It is this gender construction that leads to the stratification of the society where the men are placed at a higher hierarchy and the women automatically below them (Butler, 2011). This explains why the disparities exist between men and women today. Since the women are expected to be passive, calm and considerate, the men have taken over them, with very few women taking up positions that are considered prestigious. The prestigious jobs have long been left for the men. From the stated arguments, it is, therefore, warranted to conclude that gender identity is not natural but constructed by the society. The existence of evil along side a good and omnipotent God can be explained philosophically. According to the research of Clarke (2002), the omnipotent God has the ability to see all the actions that humans take part in. This involves both the good and the wrong deeds that humans do. However, it is vital to consider that evil exists because the omnipotent God gives the human beings the will and authority to do what they wish, whether good or evil. The author continues to argue that God continually advocates for good deeds (Clarke, 2002). Nonetheless, it is evident that some humans are inclined on the wrong side despite there being an omnipotent God. For these persons who do the wrong things, God takes charge of them and ensures that they suffer all the consequences of their wrong deeds (Clarke, 2002). This validates the aspect that God is omnipotent and always creates a balance between good and evil. On another note, it is also evident that God’s power goes beyond the normal world as justice is always executed by the omnipotent God. From these facts, it is evident that

Atallah Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Atallah - Essay Example She says â€Å"I could not resist the soldiers because they might kill me. So what else could I do?† (Henson 36). She had to endure all the hardship together with other women who had been abducted. The Japanese Imperial army had set up com garrisons which housed sex slaves or comfort women, a term commonly used to refer to these women. Slavery as commonly known, the victim is always taken against their will and forced to work or perform acts against their will. Comfort women did not have any control over their sexual activity as all they had to do was to follow orders. These women had to endure painful ordeals of being raped and hit by soldiers. The trauma Maria experienced as a comfort woman affected her for the rest of her life. She notes that one day while she was hanging some clothes to dry, she heard a woman on the radio talking about women who had been raped and her body shook all over (Henson 83). Sexual slavery is a very profound theme in this book and given that it is a woman’s firsthand experience, one gets to see just how much it affects the

Gender Norms & Racial Bias in the Study of the Modern History Essay Example for Free

Gender Norms Racial Bias in the Study of the Modern History Essay History is the study of the past, specifically how it relates to humans. It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians. Events occurring prior to written record are considered prehistory. History can also refer to the academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past events, and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them. Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing perspective on the problems of the present. Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends, because they do not support the disinterested investigation required of the discipline of history. Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian is considered within the Western tradition to be the father of history, and, along with his contemporary Thucydides, helped form the foundations for the modern study of human history. Their work continues to be read today and the divide between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In the Eastern tradition, a state chronicle the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd century BC texts survived. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, and the a cademic study of history is a major discipline in University studies. Etymology Ancient Greek á ¼ ±ÃÆ'Ï„Î ¿Ã ÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ± means inquiry,knowledge from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his . The ancestor word is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions . The word entered the English language in 1390 with the meaning of relation of incidents, story. In Middle English,  the meaning was story in general. The restriction to the meaning record of past events arose in the late 15th century. It was still in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about Natural History. For him, historia was the knowledge of objects determined by space and time, that sort of knowledge provided by memory . In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both history and story. The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669. Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is attested from 1531. In all European languages, the substantive history is still used to mean both what happened with men, and the scholarly study of the happened, the latter sense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, History, or the word historiography. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record. The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historians archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents . The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as pa rt of the social sciences. It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification. In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history. Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is  said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three. But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before. Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in dealing with buried sites and objects, which, once unearthed, contribute to the study of history. But archaeology rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to complement its discoveries. However, archaeology is constituted by a range of methodologies and approaches which are independent from history; that is to say, archaeology does not fill the gaps within textual sources. Indeed, historical archaeology is a specific branch of archaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA; has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth apparent via the study of the total historical environment, despite the ideology of liberty inherent in written documents at this time. There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in The International Womens Movement in an Age of Transition, 1830–1975. It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward spec ialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity. History and prehistory The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By prehistory, historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid historys implicit exclusion of certain  civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world. In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote: This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as Australian Aboriginals and New Zealand MÄ ori in the past, and the oral records maintained a nd transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with European civilization. Historiography Historiography has a number of related meanings. Firstly, it can refer to how history has been produced: the story of the development of methodology and practices. Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical writing . Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the Philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations, worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. Professional historians also debate the question of whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives. Philosophy of history Philosophy of history is a branch of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history. Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible teleological end to its development—that is, it asks if there is a design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in the processes of human history. Philosophy of history should not be confused with historiography, which is the study of history as an academic discipline, and thus concerns its methods and practices, and its development as a discipline over time. Nor should philosophy of history be confused with the history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas through time. Historical methods Cultural history Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history  to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of art in society as well is the study of images and human visual production. Diplomatic history Diplomatic history, sometimes referred to as Rankin History in honor of Leopold von Ranke, focuses on politics, politicians and other high rulers and views them as being the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. This is the most common form of history and is often the classical and popular belief of what history should be. Economic history Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments. Environmental history Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it. World history World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds. It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others. The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990. The H-World discussion list serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews. Peoples history A peoples history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective of common people. A peoples history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other type of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. This history also usually focuses on events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave of smaller events cause certain developments to occur. Histomomity Histornomity is a historical study of human progress or individual personal characteristics, by using statistics to analyze references to eminent persons, their statements, behavior and discoveries in relatively neutral texts. Gender history Gender history is a sub-field of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of gender. It is in many ways, an outgrowth of womens history. Despite its relatively short life, Gender History has had a rather significant effect on the general study of history. Since the 1960s, when the initially small field first achieved a measure of acceptance, it has gone through a number of different phases, each with its own challenges and outcomes. Although some of the changes to the study of history have been quite obvious, such as increased numbers of books on famous women or simply the admission of greater numbers of women into the historical profession, other influences are more subtle. Public history Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all  levels of government. Historians Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and analysts, though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included. The judgments of history Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the judgments of history. The goals of historical judgments or interpretations are separate to those of legal judgments, which need to be formulated quickly after the events and be final. A related issue to that of the judgments of history is that of collective memory. Pseudo-history Pseudo-history is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. Closely, related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudo-history. Teaching history From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980 attention increasingly moved toward teaching world history or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy. At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives. The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pedagogies and Inveiglement and other journals for teachers. Also  influential was the Institute national de recherchà © et de documentation pedagogue. Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about historians’ approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis Franà §ois, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and promote active methods which would give pupils the immense happiness of discovery. Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity. In most countries history textbook are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the official line about national enemies. In many countries history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire World War II is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained. It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography. Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success. In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by super-patriotism but rather by an almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone and reflects principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace. The result is that German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and European.